Gender-based violence against women is getting worse under climate change, but we’re not talking about it enough.
Global development is rightfully prioritizing the impact of climate change, given how consequential it will be in determining the fate of almost everything that exists. Housing and land rights are scrutinized from the lens of climate adaptability, technological innovations are pushed to curb carbon emissions, and biodiversity preservation is central to maintaining the earth as a net carbon sink. However, one issue regularly overlooked is the impact of climate change on the experiences of vulnerable populations, particularly women facing gender-based violence (GBV).
GBV was defined in the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 as “any act that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.” The phrase also emphasized the role of environmental disasters and climate-related risks in exacerbating the risk of violence to women, including negative exposure due to disaster-induced displacements. The world today has no shortage of climate shocks, and its impacts continue to be dangerously and disproportionately felt by marginalized groups, perpetuating an enduring cycle of violence.
Time to Look Up
While gender inequality is a central tenet of social and economic development, violence against women stemming from growing global inequality is rarely addressed. Recent years have shown us how susceptible humanity is to vulnerability in the advent of disaster; for example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, when families were restricted to their homes with reduced livelihood opportunities, growing distress, and limited mobility, nearly 1 out of 3 women[i] worldwide faced violence at the hands of their partners. Such events frequently go unreported due to stigma, shame, and fear.
As climate change worsens, women confront a dual threat: both the consequences of environmental devastation across communities as well as increased risks of gender-based violence. In Sudan[ii], the ongoing conflict has doubled the need for gender-based violence-related services to 6.7 million as of December 2023, with internally displaced women and girls facing rising sexual violence, exploitation, and abuse. During the 2011 earthquakes in Japan[iii], despite official denials, studies documented numerous incidents of sexual assault and domestic violence, notably targeting vulnerable women. In Uganda[iv], drought conditions have led to heightened physical (38%) and sexual violence (30%), with women and girls often victimized during long journeys for basic necessities, while food insecurity caused forced marriages of girls (18%) for dowry or other survival needs. In the United States, rates of sexual assault rose in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina[v], and following the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in California and the 1980 Mt. Saint Helens eruption, there was a 300% increase in reports of sexual violence and a 46% rise in reports of domestic violence, respectively.
Recent statistics[vi] show that a staggering 216 million people may be forced to leave their homes to migrate elsewhere within their own countries by 2050. Women and children are poised to make up the majority of these climate migrants[vii]. Whether they’re on the move, in transitional campsites, or settling in new and resource-scarce environments, they are susceptible to increased violence due to factors such as young age, alcohol consumption, and limited privacy for performing bodily functions. A meta-analysis in Africa[viii] revealed that at least 48% of all refugee and displaced women and girls experience GBV at least once in their lifetime.
If this weren’t alarming enough, recent studies[ix] reveal a concerning link between rising temperatures and domestic violence in low- and middle-income South Asian countries. This link is grounded in the “heat-aggression hypothesis[x],” which posits that escalating temperatures intensify biological and psychological violent tendencies. Moreover, when extreme heat intersects with socioeconomic pressures—such as laboring under the scorching sun for 12 hours a day or earning a meager wage to sustain a family of four— the risk of intimate partner violence surges. Disturbingly, projections indicate that if carbon emissions continue unchecked, intimate partner violence could rise by 21% by the end of this century, with India making up the majority of the estimated increase in violent acts (23.5%), followed by Nepal (14.8%) and Pakistan (5.9%). To compound the crisis, international laws remain woefully inadequate[xi] in addressing the gendered toll of climate-induced natural disasters.
What You Can’t See Does and Will Hurt
Traditional gender roles, which confine women to domestic spaces, increase their vulnerability to violence[xii] as power dynamics can shift within strained households. In most countries, women still shoulder the bulk of domestic household labor, exposing them to greater health risks from conventional energy sources. The slow transition[xiii] away from traditional cookstoves that burn coal and wood has meant women are contending with more health hazards from household air pollution. Beyond the physical risks, climate change intensifies the burden of unpaid care, with women and girls spending more time collecting water, firewood, and food— time that could otherwise be spent on education or earning an income. These pressures strip them of opportunities to participate in society[xiv], trapping them in a vicious cycle of inequality that largely remains hidden from the public and policymakers.
With the climate crisis comes a scarcity mindset – a behavioral shift from a cooperative society to a competitive one fueled by a lack of resources. In areas with persistent gender disparities, the firm grip of patriarchy has intensified over time— including the desire for sons over daughters[xv] and to marry young girls off to reduce the feeding burden[xvi]. Women are also more likely to be coerced into sexual exploitation in exchange for goods or services during resource scarcity, while others experience an increased risk of violence when traveling long distances to fetch water or firewood during natural disasters.
Today, we need to muster both the resources and the moral duty to champion women’s rights and combat violence with greater justice and effectiveness. These issues must be tackled directly and placed at the forefront of global conversations. The international community should take the following actions to address Gender based violence:
Strengthen Legal and Institutional Framework
While the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the UNFCCC Gender Action Plan promote gender equality, they do not specifically address GBV in the context of climate impacts[xvii]. CEDAW’s General Recommendation No. 37[xviii] calls for protecting women and girls from violence in disaster settings, yet lacks enforceability. Furthermore, the Paris Agreement recognizes the importance of gender equality but omits detailed mechanisms to combat the heightened risks of GBV in climate-affected areas. To close these gaps, international bodies should establish binding legal standards[xix] that explicitly address GBV in the context of climate change. At the national level, governments need to amend existing laws or introduce new legislation to include specific provisions for climate-related GBV. This should be complemented by targeted training for law enforcement and judicial officials, similar to the one enforced[xx] by the Gender Equity Bureau in Japan after the country’s 2011 earthquake for recognizing and handling GBV in climate disaster scenarios. Additionally, sufficient funding and human resources must be allocated to ensure the effective enforcement of these laws and to provide essential support to the populations most vulnerable to climate-induced GBV.
Empower Women Financially
Programs such as the World Bank’s Women Entrepreneurs Finance Initiative (We-Fi)[xxi] and Solar Sister[xxii] have made strides in providing financial support and promoting renewable energy access for women in underserved communities. However, more can be done. Expanding vocational training programs for climate-resilient livelihoods and facilitating access to credit and financial services for women entrepreneurs in renewable energy sectors would empower women economically and reduce their dependence on traditional fuels, mitigating risks associated with resource collection.
Build Resilient Communities
Community-based initiatives, like those by Care International,[xxiii] have established safe spaces for women and girls in disaster-prone areas, while UNFPA Campaigns[xxiv] in Bangladesh have raised awareness about gender-based violence following natural disasters. To further build resilience, local leaders and communities must be engaged in designing programs that challenge harmful gender norms. Investment in secure shelters, accessible healthcare, and other community infrastructure is also critical to enhancing resilience and reducing vulnerabilities. Protection guidelines by agencies like UNHCR and policies supporting displaced populations have helped address some risks but often lack gender-specific considerations. Policies must be developed to address displaced women and girls’ unique needs, ensuring sustainable access to education, healthcare, and livelihoods. Additionally, refugee camps and resettlement areas must have adequate lighting, secure facilities, and trained personnel to protect against GBV, ensuring a safer environment for women and girls impacted by climate displacement.
Ensure Representation and Leadership
Progress in this area includes the UNFCCC’s Gender Action Plan, which promotes women’s participation in climate decision-making, and grassroots efforts by organizations like the Women’s Environment & Development Organization (WEDO).[xxv] For example, the Clean Cooking Alliance’s Women Energising series[xxvi] showcases the significant contributions of women like Gloria Boafo-Mensah, who is conducting vital research on Ghana’s clean cooking sector. However, ensuring true representation requires implementing quotas to include women in climate-related decision-making bodies and providing leadership training and mentorship programs to empower women at all levels of governance.
Every policy we make – and every step we take – should reflect this commitment. By truly listening to the voices of those most impacted, we can pave the way for a just and resilient future. This isn’t just an opportunity. It’s our responsibility to ensure our planet remains habitable for everyone, including the most vulnerable among us.
[i] Kifle, Mearg Eyasu, Setognal Birara Aychiluhm, and Etsay Woldu Anbesu. 2024. “Global Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence during the COVID-19 Pandemic among Women: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” BMC Women’s Health 24 (1): 127. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-023-02845-8.
[ii] “WOMEN AND GIRLS OF SUDAN: FORTITUDE AMID THE FLAME OF WAR.” 2024. UN Women. https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2024-09/gender-alert-women-and-girls-of-sudan-fortitude-amid-the-flame-of-war-en.pdf.
[iii] “Gender-Based Violence Following the 2011 Great East Japan Disasters: Making the Invisible Visible through Research.” n.d. Accessed February 8, 2025. https://ssw.umich.edu/stories/53271-gender-based-violence-following-the-2011-great-east-japan-disasters-making-the-invisible-visible-through-research.
[iv] “Vulnerability to Drought: Building Resilience for Women and Young People in Uganda.” 2018. United Nations Population Fund. https://uganda.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNFPA%20%20population%20brief%206%202019%20net.pdf.
[v] Klein, Alisa. 2012. “Preventing and Responding to Sexual Violence in Disasters.” Louisiana Foundation Against Sexual Assault (LaFASA) & & National Sexual Violence Resource Center (NSVRC).
[vi] “Groundswell Report.” n.d. World Bank. Accessed February 8, 2025. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/09/13/climate-change-could-force-216-million-people-to-migrate-within-their-own-countries-by-2050.
[vii] “What Women and Girls Need Most as Climate Disasters and Displacement Wreak Havoc across the World.” n.d. Accessed February 8, 2025. https://www.unfpa.org/news/what-women-and-girls-need-most-climate-disasters-and-displacement-wreak-havoc-across-world.
[viii] “Gender-Based Violence and Its Determinants among Refugees and Internally Displaced Women in Africa: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | BMC Public Health.” n.d. Accessed February 8, 2025. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12889-024-20329-8.
[ix] Zhu, Yixiang, Cheng He, Michelle Bell, Yuqiang Zhang, Zafar Fatmi, Ying Zhang, Maryam Zaid, et al. 2023. “Association of Ambient Temperature With the Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence Among Partnered Women in Low- and Middle-Income South Asian Countries.” JAMA Psychiatry 80 (9): 952–61. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.1958.
[x] Anderson, Craig A. 1989. “Temperature and Aggression: Ubiquitous Effects of Heat on Occurrence of Human Violence.” Psychological Bulletin 106 (1): 74–96. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.74.
[xi] Desai, Bharat H., and Moumita Mandal. 2021. “Role of Climate Change in Exacerbating Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Women: A New Challenge for International Law.” Environmental Policy and Law 51 (3): 137–57. https://doi.org/10.3233/EPL-210055.
[xii] GENDER AND CLEAN COOKING. (2021, July). Clean Cooking Alliance. https:/cleancooking.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/CCA-gender-sheet-ENGLISH.pdf
[xiii] “Progress on Clean Cooking Is Too Slow – That Must Change.” n.d. Accessed February 8, 2025. https://news.trust.org/item/20210527135809-s8g34/.
[xiv] Kelkar, G., & Nathan, D. (2021). Cultural and Economic Barriers in Switching to Clean Cooking Energy: Does Women’s Agency Make a Difference? Energies, 14(21), 7242. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217242
[xv] Soliman, A., Rex, H. C., & Warren, D. (2022, December 9). Climate change and gender-based violence—Interlinked crises in East Africa. World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/climatechange/climate-change-and-gender-based-violence-interlinked-crises-east-africa
[xvi] Digital, Swace. n.d. “Global Girlhood Report 2023: Girls at the Centre of the Storm – Her Planet, Her Future, Her Solutions.” Save the Children’s Resource Centre. Accessed February 8, 2025. https://resource-centre.savethechildren.net/pdf/STC_Global_Girlhood_Report_2023.pdf/.
[xvii] Julie Ada Tchoukou, The Silences of International Human Rights Law: The Need for a UN Treaty on Violence Against Women, Human Rights Law Review, Volume 23, Issue 3, September 2023, ngad016, https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1093/hrlr/ngad016
[xviii] “CEDAW General Recommendation No. 37 | UNW WRD Knowledge Hub.” n.d. Accessed February 8, 2025. https://wrd.unwomen.org/practice/resources/cedaw-general-recommendation-no-37.
[xix] Julie Ada Tchoukou, The Silences of International Human Rights Law: The Need for a UN Treaty on Violence Against Women, Human Rights Law Review, Volume 23, Issue 3, September 2023, ngad016, https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1093/hrlr/ngad016
[xx] “Gender-Based Violence Following the 2011 Great East Japan Disasters: Making the Invisible Visible through Research.” n.d. Accessed February 8, 2025. https://ssw.umich.edu/stories/53271-gender-based-violence-following-the-2011-great-east-japan-disasters-making-the-invisible-visible-through-research.
[xxi] “Women Entrepreneurs Finance Initiative,” Women Entrepreneurs Finance Initiative, accessed April 18, 2025, https://we-fi.org/.
[xxii] “Home,” Solar Sister, accessed April 18, 2025, https://solarsister.org/.
[xxiii] “CARE – Fighting Global Poverty and World Hunger,” CARE, accessed April 18, 2025, https://www.care.org/.
[xxiv] “UNFPA Bangladesh,” UNFPA-Bangladesh, accessed April 18, 2025, https://bangladesh.unfpa.org/home.
[xxv] “WEDO – For a Just World That Promotes and Protects Human Rights, Gender Equality and the Integrity of the Environment.,” WEDO, accessed April 18, 2025, https://wedo.org/.
[xxvi] “A Visionary in Ghana’s Sustainable Cooking Landscape.” n.d. Clean Cooking Alliance. Accessed February 8, 2025. https://cleancooking.org/news/a-visionary-in-ghanas-sustainable-cooking-landscape/.